As stated the Narrative about the significance of our costumes (Our Costumes – Part 1), many cultural and ancestral factors were taken into account when designing our costumes. These include:
- Our ancestors dress code
- The vibrantly coloured fabrics used for making clothes
- Our ancestors’ knowledge and skills in manufacturing and trading of textile
- The accessories our ancestors wore
- The amount of clothing they wore
- What our ancestors wore for plantation work
- What our ancestors wore for dressing-up on special occasions
- What our ancestors wore post-emancipation
(1). Our ancestors’ dress code:
Africans love to “dress up”. Emphasis on appropriate dress is apparently central to all social, economic, spiritual and cultural functioning in African societies. Ritual dressing for special occasions required covering the body in visually attractive clothing. The wearing of animal skin and leatherr; face and body scarring and painting; ceremonial masks; elaborate and artistically designed hairstyles and/or head coverings; matching beads, handbag and shoes; gold and silver jewellery are conventional.
(2). The vibrantly coloured fabrics used for making clothes
Vibrancy in intricately manufactured fabrics could be culturally symbolic. For example, to communicate place of origin, tribal and cultural affiliation, age, sex, wealth, family, organization, occupation, position held within communities, specific life events, spiritual and religious beliefs, as well as social and emotional well-being.
Red
Associated with war, blood, resistance, courage, strength and victory. In African religious circles it is associated with spiritual awakening, Pentecost and protection against evil spirits.
White
Associated with innocence, birth, virginity, purity and light, spiritual tranquility, marriage and thanksgiving.
Green
Associated with healing, success, marriage, breaking of shackles and freedom from bondage, fertility, hope, victory of life over death, bountifulness, and prosperity
Yellow
Associated with the highest intellect, fiery passion, youthful happiness and harvest.
Gold
Associated with the Holy Spirit, the God Head, kingliness, glory, purification, divinity, righteousness, divine light, mercy, source of power, majesty, deity and wealth.
Black
Associated with, death, funerals, eternity, fear, destruction, to kill or hurt and the Liturgical colour of Good Friday.
Blue
Associated with motherhood, Mother Mary, skies, heaven, life giving air, hope, good health, truth, peace, and tranquility.
Purple
Associated with order of sanctification, new membership, fasting, faith, patience, trust, penitence, mourning, and royalty.
(3). Our ancestors’ knowledge and skills in manufacturing and trading of fabric and clothing
Africans had knowledge and experience in manufacturing and trading of cloth and clothing. According to Buckridge (2004), “It was in Africa that some of the great advancements were made in the history of dress and the manufacture of cloth”.
Africans were aware of changes in fashion and design technology, through their major trade links, and utilized this knowledge to create new fashionable designs. Cotton and lace fabrics were commonly manufactured and used in the design of clothing.
Knowledge, skills and experience in textile dyeing, weaving, sewing, embroidering, hand-sewn beadwork, tailoring, shoemaking were also common among West Africans.
(4). The Accessories they wore
Beads were popular accessories, made from animal teeth or vertebrae, shells, nuts, ivory, stones, copper, brass, silver, gold and glass.
The amount, type and where worn on the body, help to communicate the wearer’s age, sex, wealth and status. Beads were also worn for protection from evil spirits.
Head scarf/wrap was popularly worn by West African women, either casually and for special occasions. The colours in the dyed fabric and style of head wrap reflected the individual woman’s creativity and ingenuity.
(5). The amount of clothing our ancestors wore
The undressed or partially dressed body, including bare-footed and bare-headed, were socially and culturally acceptable in some African cultures. This way of dressing was perceived as appropriate for fieldwork in the African hot climate.
Stylistic interpretation and the amount of cloth used to cover the body differed between and among cultural groups. However, Africans knew how to adorn their bodies, to look and feel good, communicate their sense of purpose and their strong relationship with nature and their environment.
(6). What our ancestors wore for plantation work
According to Buckridge (2004) Slave owners were legally obliged to provide clothing for their slaves annually, with a menial penalty for non-conforming. This annual issue of clothing reinforced the enslaved dependence and subordination.
Clothes were mass-produced, designed to be suitable and practical for plantation work; to cover up their bodies to reduce the risk of diseases and mortality. They were of inferior quality, made from unrefined course material, looking drab, basic, lacked style and removed all individual choice. This inferior type of clothing maintained social distance between slaves and their owners.
The Europeans also perceived the exposed body as lewd and uncivilized. The enslaved were therefore forced to cover up their bodies and adopt the European way of dressing as a sign of civilization.
Some male and female slaves were also given ill-fitting White families’ worn out European styled clothes to wear, in order to reduce the cost of clothing.
The amount of ready-made clothing distributed to the enslaved was also dependent on their rank and status within the slave community, e.g. field slaves- house slaves- skilled men – unskilled men – women – children, all got different amounts of clothing.
Women apparently received less clothing than men, although they worked side by side with men in the fields doing the same kind of hard work. Some slave women received extra clothing as a reward for child bearing and some received extra clothing from White overseers in exchange for sexual favours.
Colonialists’ efforts to reduce the cost of clothing
Despite expressed abhorrence with the exposed or minimally dressed African body, when the annual minimum clothing allowance wore out, and no more was available for distribution, loincloths had to be worn by enslaved women and men.
By not giving additional clothing when needed, the enslaved were subjected to further dehumanization, humiliation and sexual exploitation.
Over time, as slave stock increased, slave owners sought to reduce the cost of manufactured clothing. They began to distribute the raw material, needles, threads, pins, scissors, buckles, tapes and buttons to the slaves to make their own clothes
Material distributed to enslaved Africans to make their own clothing
The most common fabrics distributed to slaves for clothing were;
(1) Osnaburg – a rough, course, harsh, warm cotton fabric from Germany, also used for making sacks for packing and other industrial purposes.
(2) Pennystone – a course heavy woollen cloth, from England. They represented the cheapest grade of cotton, and were considered the most durable fabrics for rigorous plantation work.
Other materials distributed included:
(3) Calico – a cheap lightweight, striped or plaid cotton material from India, given to make dresses and blouses.
(4) Kendal – a green woollen cloth to make jackets or other items of clothing.
(5) The Bandana /Madras cloth – a red and white plaid (tie dye pattern) or red and yellow or red and orange checked material, originally imported from India in silk form, in the 18th and 19th centuries, was considered too expensive for the colonial market.
However British manufacturers copied and mass-produced the Bandana into a cheaper cotton material and distributed it to make blouses, dresses, neck cloths and head wraps.
Peasant Women wore loose fitting blouses, with a collar or frill. Skirts were long to calf or ankles, wide, gathered at the waist and tied with a string to hang loose from the waist or hip. Undergarments included the chemise and drawers.
A long apron or bib covering the chest and most of the skirt consisted of 2 pockets, one for silver coins and one for copper coins was also worn. This is similar to the cover cloths worn by East and West African women over their skirts.
Head covering
The Bandana material was commonly used as head wrap by peasant women, and indentured labourers. It was a popular feature of plantation dress – a tradition brought from West Africa. It was considered a safe place for traders to hide their money. It had several other functions, for example:
(1) When worn with a cotta on top, it enabled women to balance load on their heads;
(2) Protect their heads from the sun;
(3 ) Hid and prevent injuries to the head;
(4) Protected hairstyles or cover up uncombed hair;
(5) Believed to cure headaches when tied tightly;
(6) Symbolic of community identity or personal status within the community;
(7) Communicate an act or state of rebellion;
(8) A secret place for militant slaves to store bullets during fighting;
(9) Worn for religious rituals like the Kumina and Pocomania.
Sun Bonnets – simple work or garden hats, with a large brim and woven from plant fibre. Hats protected the head from the sun, and concealed hair that needed grooming.
Hats also reminded women of their African ancestors’ tradition of covering the head during religious events. British missionaries also reinforced this practice, espousing that the wearing of hats was rooted in Christian scriptural teaching; therefore a woman’s head should always be covered in church during service.
Jippi-jappa Hats – worn by women and men within the slave community These were broad brimmed cream coloured straw hats, woven locally within the slave population, and were less expensive than imported ones. They also wore hats that were locally made from lace-bark and animal hide.
Second hand hats and caps, manufactured in Britain, were also given to them by their slave masters to wear.
Peasant Men wore short or long sleeve shirts, rolled up whilst working. They wore trousers or dungarees made from course blue dungaree material (a coarse Indian calico) with large patch pockets. They rolled up their trousers to the calf or knee whilst working and some held their trousers up with ropes or braces.
Foot wear for women and men – The majority of slaves, men and women, worked barefooted because shoes were not part of their annual clothing allowance. Some women and men tried to protect their feet whilst working in the rugged fields with foot coverings made from leaves or grass.
Cross-dressing
Women and men cross- dressed. This activity was commonplace among some African slaves when women dressed up as men, and men dressed up as women. They cross- dressed to escape servitude, to disguise themselves as freed slaves and to resist being caught. They also used cross-dressing as a covert activity to obtain information to help plan their rebellion.
(7). What our ancestors wore for “dressing up” on special occasions
Our African ancestors from diverse cultural backgrounds took their colourful, rich and unique dress customs to Jamaica. When opportunities arose they used their knowledge, experience and skills to dress up in artistically designed clothes with matching accessories, in order to nurture and maintain links with their homeland and maintain cultural pride in their appearance.
Slave owners granted permission for this ritual dressing up of “their slaves” on special occasions, such as religious services, funerals, christenings and public holidays.
The act of “granting permission” was covertly to affirm and validate their superior status. However permission provided opportunities for the enslaved to dress up in clothes to suit their own taste, to look and feel good, and to help them temporarily escape their poverty and subordinate position within colonial society.
Dressing up sometimes functioned as a mask that shielded and concealed their identity. For example, peasant women were able to dress up so that they could pass as upper middle class women.
To achieve the desired appearance, the enslaved had no choice but to use their small savings from market trading, to purchase refined materials and accessories.
The fabrics purchased for making their “dress up” clothes included:
Damask – A fabric made of wool and linen or cotton with contrasting shiny (light) and matte (shade) surfaces. Damask was popular among some slave women and worn during public holidays and special occasions.
Muslin – A thin light cotton fabric that was used to make ankle length dresses for special occasions and was commonly worn with a shawl over the shoulder.
Calamanco – A checked fabric made from cotton and wool.
Satin – A smooth silk-like material with glossy and dull surfaces
Linen and Lace – The enslaved also used their knowledge, skills and experience in manufacturing of clothing to produce low cost linen and lace from tree bark.
Textile dyeing was also undertaken to add vibrancy to their clothes with symbolic and artistic meaning.
Design of Women’s dress up clothes
Women took great pride in what they wore and were boastful and competitive in their dress sense. Slave seamstresses had the opportunity to express their individuality, creativity, flexibility and adaptability in the design of “dress- up” clothes.
They used their knowledge of diverse African dress styles, European fashion trends and material resources available on the island, to make visually appealing and sometimes “over fussy and flamboyant” clothes.
This enabled a variety of stylistic and cultural expressions within the slave community. However, dress- up clothes were designed to have a more European/Victorian appearance – long, fussy and constraining – as an outward sign of social mobility and awareness of current fashion trends.
Accessories worn by women
Beads and bright jewellery were commonly worn. This tradition was brought from West Africa where beads were widely worn by men and women for aesthetic value and as protection to ward off evil spirits. They adorned their necks, wrists and waists with beads purchased from local market traders to maintain their African identity.
Beads were made from a variety of materials, including corals, gold and chains. The colour, size, shape and material used to make beads, or where beads are worn on the body, help the wearer to communicate, age, wealth, marital status, religious belief and sex.
Planters also gave their slaves beads to pacify them, in an attempt to make them better workers.
Trimmed bonnets and hats – They later adopted the European fashion trend of wearing Trimmed bonnets and hats of various sizes, shapes and colours, on special occasions.
Until mid-19th century, fashionable bonnets, made from refined fabrics in all shapes and sizes, were lavishly trimmed with flowers, feathers, bows and loops of brightly coloured ribbons, and were kept on the head with ornate hatpins.
Bonnets and hats were worn to shine, to compete with other women, to make a statement, to make fashion, to make themselves feel good, to instil a sense of pride and dignity and to reflect their social standing within the slave community.
Design of Men dress-up clothes
Enslaved Men wore European dress styles, i.e. black short or long tailed jacket, waistcoat, white shirt, cravat, bow tie, white trousers and black trousers,. They also wore Bowler/Top hats on special occasions. These hats were very popular in the 1870s among elite and middle class men but were also worn by the enslaved Africans when they dressed up.
Dress-up footwear for women and men
Women and men wore leather shoes bought from local market traders or made- to -measure by slave cobblers, from ox hide bound with thongs. They were worn for long journeys or for special occasions.
Wearing their slave masters’ unwanted clothes.
Some enslaved women and men deliberately and covertly obtained and dressed up in their slave owner’s clothes. This was with intent to ridicule them or cast spells on them, to weaken their spirit and to defeat the “enemy”. They also wore their master’s clothing to disguise themselves, when attempting to escape.
(8) What our ancestors wore Post emancipation
Discussion with friends and review of old photographs, led me to believe that most African – Jamaicans abandoned the colourful, rich and unique African dress customs that our ancestors brought to Jamaica.
Although there were some rudimentary attempts to amalgamate African and European dress styles, including the use of brightly multi- coloured cotton fabrics, tie dyed fabrics, satin, linen and lace, the higher the social aspiration of the individual Jamaican, the fewer African elements were seen in their dress.
According to Buckridge (2004) the adaptation of European dress designs was perceived as a sign of progress in elegance, grace and civilization”. This blatant transformation to European dress code could have resulted from:
- Prolonged and deliberate process of African cultural annihilation;
- Unavailability of African printed fabrics on the island for trading/purchasing;
- The lost art of cloth manufacturing;
- The deskilling of the seamstresses in creatively designing African clothes.
The post emancipated seamstresses had no choice but to make clothes as desired by their aspiring customers, to earn their living. Most African -Jamaicans also accepted and conformed to European values and beliefs about body exposure and its link with sexual immorality.
Middle class women wore Victorian long skirts with trains and multiple layers of frills and laces, held out by a stiff or caged crinoline, a flounce over the skirt, a corsage and tight fitting bodices trimmed with lace or frills, puffed or elephant sleeves, bonnets or hats, gloves, gold jewellery and predominantly white shoes.
Peasant women in rural areas continue to wear brightly coloured multi-patterned dresses, a sign of cultural retention, panama and jippi-jappa hat, church hat, head scarf, head wrap and leather shoes with low heel.
Peasant men wore brightly coloured multi-patterned shirts, khaki trousers, panama and jippi -jappa hat. On special occasions they would wear log sleeved white shirt, a jacket or waistcoat, cravat, bow tie, white or black trousers, or black suit, bowler/top hat and leather shoes.
Bandana material became similar in style and colour among day labourers, peasant women, men and market traders. Although its popularity as a woman’s head wrap or item of clothing had decreased over the years, it remained symbolic.
The red and white plaid cotton bandana material is used to design the traditional folk costume for women and men in Jamaica and the “National costume” on the occasion of the Queen of England’s visit to Jamaica in 1953.
Buckridge.S, (2004) The Language of Dress. Resistance and Accommodation in Jamaica – 1760-1800. The University of the West Indies Press.
(Updated 2025)